Some of the most Common Misconceptions about Biological Evolution

Biological evolution is the “...change in the characteristics of descendent populations of organisms”, organisms today being the modified (not meaning ‘better’) descendants of previous species, resulting in all living species having once had a common ancestor right here on Earth (Hurry 1993: 1-2). With there being 8 million possible chromosome combinations in Homo sapiens meiosis, and therefore a zygote upon random mating having a possibility of 64 trillion combinations of chromosomes (Campbell et al. 2009: 141), sexual reproduction of organisms generates variable offspring, allowing the descent of generation to generation with modification giving rise to great diversity in and between species (Hurry 1993: 2). You are not evolving, you have evolved, and if you have children, they will be the next organisms at the height of the evolutionary tree with that of the next generation of cats, pigeons, grasshoppers etc. The aim of this essay is therefore to shed light on a few of the misguided misconceptions.

  Jakobi (2010) is a college lecturer who wrote an article on some of his student answers on evolution before the course began. Answers included; “I don’t believe that dolphins became dogs or that we were once Apes” (Ibid: 418) and “If the evolution theory is true for humans then why aren’t little monkeys sitting outside on the grass evolving into humans?” (Ibid: 419). This idea is also found in other papers such as Meikle and Scott’s (2010): “If humans evolved from monkeys, why are there still monkeys?” (Ibid: 573), and in Dawkins (2009); “I’ll believe in evolution when a monkey gives birth to a human baby” (Ibid: 155). The misconception clearly being: Evolution states that Humans evolved from Chimpanzees/ Monkeys (Chimpanzees and monkeys coming under the same title in this case).
Misconception One: A Chimpanzee is a monkey. In fact, both are primates, sharing common features such as; a generalised body plan, grasping hands with opposable thumbs and/or big toes, flattened nails, forward facing eyes, generalised teeth, have large brains for body size etc. But there are also differences within the primate family. Apes (including us and chimpanzees) and monkeys come under the suborder Haplorhini, but New World Monkeys (NWM) live in sub/tropical areas, have small body sizes, have three premolar teeth and are all arboreal, some having prehensile tails. The Old World Monkeys (OWM) live in parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, have ischial callosities, bilophodont molars and display a greater size range and sexual dimorphism than NWM, while the apes (the Hominoids) possess rotating, suspensory shoulders and lack tails (Stanford et al. 2009).
Misconception Two: Humans evolved from Chimpanzees. However, we are merely similar apes, chimpanzees being our closest living relatives. “The genetic similarity between a chimpanzee and us is greater than the chimpanzee’s evolutionary affinity to a gorilla” (Ibid: 189). Meikle and Scott (2010) explain the link between chimpanzees and us as a cousin relationship, mentioning that nobody would refer to having come from their cousin, yet cousins share a common relative. Using this information and that of the modern primate family tree, one can clearly see that humans share a closer ancestry to other apes, than apes do to monkeys, but we in turn still share an ancestry with monkeys. Even fruit flies share nearly 60% of their DNA with humans (BBC 2000), although our common ancestor with fruit flies is much further away than that of us and monkeys.

 The divergence time of OWM and Hominoidea is approximately 30 million years ago, while it is about 5.9 million years ago when humans and chimpanzees diverged (Lewin & Foley 2005: 201). But this divergence has been greatly argued about, many people expressing the idea that somewhere there should lie a missing link; a fossil that provides the link between humans and apes (Ibid: 228). Misconception three: We still haven’t found the missing link. In fact, there is a wide range of evidence supporting that chimpanzees and humans are close relatives. For one, the similarities in anatomical structure is very close, such as the rotating, suspensory shoulders and the lack of tail. Secondly, the comparison of DNA has shown little difference; “The more distant the evolutionary relationship between two organisms, the more differences there will be in the amino acid sequences of these proteins”. Even chromosome shapes are similar, as well as almost identical banding patterns, African apes and humans being susceptible to many of the same diseases and parasites (Tanner 1981: 34). Therefore genetic comparisons has shown that between individual humans, there is about 0.1% difference, between Chimpanzees and humans: 1.2%, the Bonobo differing to the same degree, 1.6% between gorillas and all apes mentioned above, and a 3.1% difference between all apes mentioned above and the Orangutan (Human Origins.si.edu). So far, even if there wasn’t a fossil record of pre Homo sapiens, there is brilliant evidence for the link between Chimpanzees and us. As Dawkins (2009: 150-151) states; “...we now have a rich supply of intermediate fossils linking modern humans to the common ancestor that we share with chimpanzees. On the human side of the divide, that is”, he goes onto say that no fossils are available linking an ancestor to modern Chimpanzees, and that this may be due to forests where Chimpanzees reside, not providing good fossilising conditions. But the fossil record is rich in abundance, from Sahelanthropus tchadensis to Australopithecus afarensis, all the way to Homo sapiens. 

Fossil evidence of early hominins has shown that our ancestors were bipedal before our brains expanded. As primates, we all have large brains for our size, which is mainly down to the consequence of having unusually large neocortices. Humans have the largest neocortex accounting for 80% of our brain volume (about 10-40% in non-primate mammals, about 50% in prosimians) (Dunbar et al. 2007: 113). We are therefore extremely social and are dependent upon our material culture. But vanity has indeed created misconceptions. Misconceptions four and five: The ladder of perfection (LOP) and Intelligent Design (ID). Both these misconceptions are closely intertwined since; ID states that to have such complexities in nature, there must be a purposeful designer (Scott 2005:63), the earth and its habitats being created for humans because of our ‘specialness’ (ICR.org), whereas LOP is a belief where evolution is climbing a metaphorical ladder and human beings are the end goal (McPherson Smith & Sullivan 2007). Many examples could be used to discount these misconceptions; this essay will use the example of bipedialism. “Of some 4,000 living mammals, only humans are habitual striding bipeds today” (Stanford et. al 2009: 290), and if ID and LOP were true, only perfection could arise from this, but, like all adaptations, problems arise as well. Such problems are; lower back problems due to weight increasing further down the spine you go, babies having to rotate and causing pain to mother during childbirth due to narrow pelvis and large brain size (Ibid: 292-293), fractures/breaks occurring at the femoral neck due to weight bearing etc. It is doubtful that bipedialism would have any adverse effects if we were the perfect specimen designed by a higher deity.

  To conclude, there is an abundance of evidence supporting evolutionary theory. However, with anything, something must be first explained in proper detail and understood before it can be accepted or debated. Misinterpretations are readily taught and passed onto others and this is where much of the problem appears. Misconceptions can easily be remedied if those in the wrong take the time to listen. Apprehension is created with the belief that learning evolution may convert the religious, but Rice et al. (2010) shows, those of a theistic position can too learn evolutionary perspectives, although one misconception in this essay touched lightly on the topic of religion. However, the nature of this blog post only asks for others to understand the knowledge before reproducing it.




[NOTE: I know that one particular objection to evolution, surrounding Intelligent Design is the eye. How could the eye come about?! But this is a terrible argument for ID as the eye has design flaws in itself such as the blind spot. However, if you're curious about how the eye could have evolved, watch this youtube clip where Richard Dawkins demonstrates how the eye could have evolved in an old Christmas lecture]

[NOTE: I read a book titled 'A Universe from Nothing' by Dr. Lawrence Krauss a while ago. Krauss argues how a universe could come about from nothing, with no externalities or magic involved. If you're interested, watch his youtube clip]

 

[NOTE: Here's a youtube clip of Derren Brown speaking about Intelligent Design]

References: [Online sources are already referenced in the text but titles will be included under the heading - Online Sources - in case links don't work]

1.  Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Taylor, M.R., Simon, E.J., Dickey, J.L. (2009). Biology: Concepts and Connections. Pearson Benjamin Cummings: San Francisco

2. Dawkins, R. (2009). The Greatest Show on Earth. Transworld Publishers: London

3. Dunbar, R., Barrett, L. and Lycett, J. (2007). Evolutionary Psychology. Oneworld Publications: Oxford

4. Hurry, S. (1993). Introduction to Evolution. In Skelton, P. (1993). Evolution: A Biological and Palaeontological Approach, The Open University: Milton Keynes, pp. 1-23

5. Jakobi, S.R. (2010). “Little Monkeys on the grass...” How people for and Against Evolution Fail to Understand the Theory of Evolution. Evo Edu Outreach 3: 416-419

6.  Lewin, R. and Foley, R.A. (2005). Principles of Human Evolution. Blackwell Publishing: Malden

7. McPherson Smith, C. and Sullivan, C. (2007). The Top Ten Myths about Evolution: Myth Three: The Ladder of Progress. Prometheus Books: USA

8. Meikle, W.E. and Scott, E.C. (2010). Why Are There Still Monkeys? Evo Edu Outreach 3: 573-575

9. Scott, E.C. (2005). Evolution vs. Creationism: An Introduction. University of California Press: Berkeley

10.  Stanford, C., Allen, J.S. and Antón, S.C. (2009). Biological Anthropology. Pearson Education: New Jersey   

11. Tanner, N.M. (1981). On Becoming Human. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge

Online Sources

1. BBC. (2000). Fruit Fly Gene Success 

2. Human Origins. (Unknown). What does it mean to be human? Genetics

3.  ICR – The Institute for Creationism. (Unknown). Design and Purpose  

 

 

Evidence of Psychedelic Drug Use in History

Many hallucinogens/psychedelics can be traced far back in time, with rock art from the Upper Palaeolithic now believed to be the workings of those in altered states of consciousness (ASC). The term ‘psychedelic’ was coined in 1956 by Humphry Osmond, and means soul-manifesting, and includes all hallucinogens and artwork inspired by them (Devereux 1997: xvii). Contrary to popular thinking, psychedelics are not addictive and can’t be overdosed on, instead, many are natural chemicals occurring in plants that interact with brain chemistry (Furst 1972: xiii), and of the approximate 30,000 plant species, ‘...at least 150 are known to be employed for their intoxicating properties’ (Fuller 2000: 3) found in nearly all cultures. For example; the Huichol Indians [The Huichol Indians are from the Sierra Madre Occidental of Northern Mexico. They are also known as the Wixáritari] have taken the three hundred mile long journey to Wirikúta where peyote is found, for hundreds of years, said to root back to Mesolithic times (Devereux 1997: 127). During this essay, the focus will be on three psychedelics; Cannabis sativa (widely known as marijuana or cannabis), magic mushrooms and LSD-25, discussing the history around them, as well as some important psychedelic mysteries and myths.

Archaeological evidence of psychedelics:
Strange as it is, it is the human nervous system that generates consciousness and subconsciousness. ASC can be brought about by many factors including; pain, sensory deprivation, ingestion of psychotropic drugs etc. Hence, it is now thought, that some of the many geometric patterns that decorate cave walls are the drawings channelled by the nervous system after the ingestion of psychedelics, the pictures themselves being perceived differently by different cultures (Lewis-Williams & Clottes 1998). Such like the African rock art that Max Knoll discovered to show remarkable similarities to the imagery of altered states (Blundell 1998: 4). Other universal images scribed while on psychedelics are thought to be; the transformation of the self into animals; such as the half bison - half human drawing in the Chauvet cave, as well as hallucinations being projected onto surfaces (Lewis-Williams & Clottes 1998). Since REM dreaming and ASC result in short term memory loss, due to dropping levels of norepinephrine [Also known as Noradrenaline secreted by the Adrenal Medulla for the reaction of fight or flight] and serotonin [A chemical required for the storage of recent memories], it is thought that rock art like the rock art in California, was made to record the sacred before it was forgotten (Whitley 1998: 31-32). Primarily female mushroom humans have been found carved in Chukchi country that have been dated back to the Bronze Age, and it is known that the use of Amanita muscaria was practiced by certain groups across Eurasia, while the Saami continued to use fly agaric well into the twentieth century (Devereux 1997:69), hence psychedelic rock art is not so farfetched. Stone carvings have also been found in Guatemala, Tabasco and Veracruz in Mexico which are dated between 1000 and 300 B.C., some depicting a transformation of human to animal, with mushrooms stemming upright from the head below (Wasson 1972: 188-189), the same animal transformation theme found in both stone sculptures and cave art. The original homeland of Cannabis is thought to be central Asia, that spread quickly to Africa and then other places, its adaptive properties (McKenna 1992: 150) and multiple uses (including; fibre, oil, nutrition, hallucinogenic properties and its ability to treat a wide range of ills, Hofmann & Schultes 1979) made it a desirable plant to human beings. ‘The thousands of names by which cannabis is known in hundreds of languages is testament...to its cultural history...ubiquity... [and] its power to move language-making faculty...’(McKenna 1992: 150). The widespread use of cannabis is found via archaeological sites; in Non Nak Tha (Thailand), 15,000 B.P. graves having been found with plant material repeatedly burned in the hollow centre of animal bones (McKenna 1992: 151); 3000 B.C. hempen rope and thread have been found in Turkestan; while ‘Stone beaters for pounding hemp fibre and impressions of hempen cord baked into pottery have been found in ancient sites in Taiwan’; as well as possible specimens of hemp in an Egyptian tomb dated around three to four thousand years ago. The use of cannabis as a psychedelic have been found in Scythian tombs in Central Asia. Tripods, pelts, braziers and charcoal with remains of cannabis leaves and fruit dated between 500 and 300 B.C. were obtained, and it’s believed that the Scythians spread cannabis westward to Europe (Hofmann & Schultes 1979).

Although archaeological evidence doesn’t give us the whole picture, the use of psychedelics is not a recent occurrence and it is not only Homo sapiens that take narcotic substances. A widely known example is the cat and catnip. Catnip affects most felines due to nepetalactone, the active chemical which causes the cat to roll around and play, and is said to be similar to the affect of LSD or marijuana in humans (Cat World 2011), whereas black lemurs have been seen to anoint their bodies with bitten millipedes, salivating profusely. Some believe that the lemurs do this to induce a psychotropic state, whereas others such as Birkinshaw (1999) believe that it is unlikely, since after 3-4 minutes, the lemurs continue with their daily routine, with a disposition unchanged. However, the effect of catnip on felines is very quick, as well as some Salvia divinorum trips, lasting about 5 minutes in humans. McKenna (1992) believes that psychedelics may have catalysed the mental functions that we associate with being human such as language, and possibly art, which was explored in the 1950s by Dr. Oscar Janiger with LSD, finding that it opened up the unexplored areas of the mind (Lee & Shlain 1985: 61-62). We can therefore see that psychedelics may have been with us since the near beginning of our species.

Myth, Story and Religion:

Since psychedelics have been around for generations, it is therefore not absurd to think that certain stories, myths and religions may have been created through the visionary experiences that psychedelics perpetuate on the human mind. While the Father Christmas myth of his red garment, reindeer (who are known to search out and eat fly agaric) and Chimney escapades, mimic a Siberian yurt smoke hole in winter (Devereux 1997: 72) are contested with ideas of the Coca Cola company globalising the now renowned ‘fat-man’ to up sales (The coca-cola company 2011), other debates on the origins of Christianity and what is soma have raised far more heckles and theories.

Allegro (1970), Wasson (1972) and Teeter (2005) all believe the answer is Amanita muscaria. Allegro (1970) researched Semitic languages to tie in myths with the mushroom, such as the Hebrew word for mushroom: ‘Kotereth’, mentioned many times in the Bible. Allegro argues that the distinctive colouring, like that of the red blood of the woman meeting the white sperm of the man to make a child, meant that stories were woven around the mushroom. He also notes that there is evidence suggesting that Amanita muscaria became Soma. Wasson (1972) also believed that Soma, a deified plant mentioned in 120 of the 1028 hymns of the Rig-Veda [The Rig-Veda are hymns of the religion of the Aryans, they invaded northwest India in approximately 1600 B.C. One of their divinities was the plant Soma (Wasson 1972: 201)] , was Amanita muscaria. He backs up his argument by saying that the Rig-Veda mentions nothing about roots, leaves, blossoms, fruit or seed, leaving the mushroom kingdom as the only option, and Amanita muscaria, because of the link to the Rig-Veda and Eurasian folklore. For example; when you drink Soma, you are said to urinate Soma. Wasson claims that this is a large clue that Soma is the fly agaric, since drinking the urine of those who have ingested fly agaric are known to gain greater effects. This occurred by the tribesmen of Chukotka and Kamchatka in the northeast of Siberia, as well as the Parsis, who still today consume urine in religious devotions, although now only bull’s urine as symbolism. Finally, Wasson proclaims that the use of Soma in Siberia has survived there only until recently, their culture saturated with intimacy of reindeer and the birch - the tree of the Shaman (the birch being the preferred host of the fly agaric), the pine tree being second to the birch for Siberian tribesmen, conifers being a place where fly agaric is also known to grow. However, objections have been made to this theory. One theory is that Soma is the psychoactive Peganum harmala [Syrian rue] due to its abundance in the Indo-Iranian region, whereas fly agaric was limited to a few mountain regions, a place where the valley residing Indo-Europeans would find hard to access (Devereux 1997: 75). Another theory, is that Soma is Stropharia cubensis (a dung loving mushroom) because of the reference to cattle and pastoralism continually repeated in the Rig-Veda e.g. Soma mixed with milk, referred to as a ‘bull’, ergo, the drinking of bull urine in the Parsis religion. However, it is believed that as climatic conditions changed and Indo-Europeans migrated farther east, mild temperatures and grassland conditions for Stropharia cubensis ceased to be available, and Amanita muscaria was taken up as the replacement Soma. One reason Amanita muscaria as Soma is contested here, is because soil considerations, geographic and seasonal factors, as well as species, all affect the psychedelic properties of the fly agaric, which gives a lower percentage of gaining a hallucinogenic experience (McKenna 1992). Yet, Soma’s father was Parajanya, the God of Thunder, a weather condition that is widespread with the fly agaric, such as the Native Americans of Guatemala who referred to the fly agaric as the ‘lightning bolt’, while the Mayan Popol Vuh [It is the sacred Book of the Mayan religion and tells of the creation of the Maya (LostCivilisations)] refer to it as ‘lightning-bolt one-leg’ (Devereux 1997: 74). Teeter (2005) ties both Allegro (1970) and Wasson’s (1972) ideas together. Teeter (2005) argues that Soma was Amanita muscaria and that this has translated into the Bible. He shows this with the Indo-European words; Soma/Haoma (meaning ‘pressed one’ or ‘body’ in Greek), Ambrosia (‘not mortal’) and Nectar (‘Death Overcomer’), which are all names for the same plant, and has been related to the plant being Jesus. This is from the idea that Jesus’ power is the same as those given to the mushroom, the mushroom associated with the Sky Father God, who sent down the mushroom in lightening and rain and it appeared immaculately overnight, like it was virgin birthed. In quotes from the Bible, Teeter shows how Christ was to be tasted and eaten.

Although the idea of psychedelics as the beginnings of religion can be hard to digest for those of faith, it makes sense that something that can change the conscious mind in the awakened state would be something revered and deified, whether or not that it is Amanita muscaria or another psychedelic. In fact, in 1888, Kalamba-Moukenge, then chief of the Balubas, a Bantu speaking tribe of the Belgian Congo, rid the tribe of all fetishes and unified them under one idol – Cannabis (Emboden, Jr. 1972: 226). Even Alfred M. Hubbard who took LSD in 1951, became a sort of preacher of the drug, believing he’d witnessed his own conception, and afterwards sought out to give others the chance to encounter the psychedelic experience, as well as administering LSD mixed with religious symbolism to help gravely ill alcoholics overcome their addiction, with a 50% recovery rate (Lee & Shlain 1992). McKenna (1992: 122) gives a step by step process of how once psychedelic plants that began certain religions are slowly replaced by symbolism and esoteric teachings of today’s religions which are then slowly replaced by science, and finally, one day, the psychedelics may once again be revisited and the mystical experience felt once more.

Psychedelic Groups in History:

Like religion, groups of people have come together throughout history to engage in activities involving psychedelics. In 1844, Le Club des Haschischins was formed in Hotel Pinodan by Dr. Moreau de Tours (Emboden, Jr. 1972: 228). At the meetings, he would provide jellied Algerian hashish called ‘dawamesc’ to respected artists and writers (McKenna 1992: 159), and with music playing, he would say as he gave each participant their fill; “This will be deduced from your share in paradise” (Emboden Jr. 1972: 228). Other groups have been more aloof, and what was taken at Eleusis is as mysterious as Soma. Eleusis, being the cult that lasted for nearly two thousand years, including persons such as Plato, Sophocles and Aristotle, and the ruins are still here today, about twelve miles west of Athens. It was at Eleusis that Persephone (Demeter’s daughter) was kidnapped by Hades in Greek myth, and therefore some believe that the hallucinogenic drink that was taken was barley that had the ergot fungus. This is because Demeter was often referred to as ‘Erysibe’, meaning ergot, as well as her signature colour being purple. Claviceps purpurea is the latin name for ergot, ‘purpurea’ meaning purple because of ergot’s colour at some stages of its life (Devereux 1997). Ironically, it was vasoconstricting substances derived from ergot that Albert Hofmann was working with when he synthesised LSD-25 (McKenna 1992: 234). However, others believe that the psychedelic substance used was in fact magic mushrooms, since the sacred rite occurred in September/early October, the season of the European mushrooms, also that the mushroom rite of Mexico matches the Eleusinian mystery point for point (Wasson 1972: 193-194). A few contest that the potion was pennyroyal, which in large doses causes delirium and unconsciousness, however whatever the psychedelic was or the nature of the ceremony, it may never be truly known, for to speak of the mystery was on pain of death (Devereux 1997). Psychedelics are something that continue to allure and mystify us, causing the creation of people to form societies that help us reach beyond what we thought possible and to find a kind of paradise. This is even seen today by the peyote trip each year to Wirikúta by the Huichol Indians.

Conclusion:
In today’s Westernised societies, psychedelics are seen as not only taboo, but criminalised, many people believing them to be unnatural and unhealthy, even though research has shown that psychedelics in fact can help the human condition. ‘Up until the early 1960s LSD studies had flourished without government restrictions...’, with the CIA sponsoring most of the studies, but once the CIA saw that LSD was not the truth drug they had been searching for, LSD was no longer needed (Lee & Shlain 1992: 92-93) and a psychedelic that had been ‘...shown to aid in psychotherapy and the treatment of chronic alcoholism...’became prohibited. ‘No other drug so far has been able to match its record in salvaging tormented lives from the alcoholic scrap heap’ (Mckenna 1992: 33). Cannabis was outlawed in the 1930s when Harry J. Anslinger characterised cannabis as the ‘weed of death’ in the best interests of American petrochemical companies wanting to eliminate hemp as their competitor. However, a belief by many is psychedelics such as magic mushrooms, cannabis or LSD’s ASC experiences dissolve boundaries and threaten reigning patriarchy, while drugs such as coffee reinforces industrial culture (McKenna 1992). Yet, through historical evidence, we see that psychedelics are a natural part of human life that has propelled some of the most interesting and in some cases, important creations of humanity.

[NOTE: While on my journey to find a suitable image for this blog post, I found the Father Christmas picture on an internet article named The Psychedelic Secrets of Santa Claus. It discusses various traditions that may have come about from a rich tradition surrounding the fly agaric, such as a reason for a Christmas tree, the star at the top, flying reindeer and Father Christmas' suit. I hinted at this possibility in my own article, of religious and mythical heritage evolving from psychedelic experiences, but we also have to ask ourselves how much credit we give to psychedelics, especially the fly agaric. I do believe myself that there is some truth to all this, yet I also think many authors of this mind-set are too involved by it. One example that comes to mind is McKenna who attributes more than religion to psychedelics...possibly a little too far in my opinion. However, take a look at the post, although I never take a post too seriously if it comes with no references.]   

[NOTE: Here is a youtube clip on the relationship between the reindeer, the saami and magic mushrooms]

                                    

[NOTE: Although I didn't speak about Alchohol really, it is a drug. Here's a youtube clip of a vervet monkeys that enjoy the taste]

[NOTE: I mentioned about black lemurs possibly intoxicating themselves with millipedes. Fascinating and funny, here is a lemur using millipedes in this youtube clip, which occurs half way through the video]

[NOTE: Finally, I wanted to add a video of the trials that governments performed when LSD first came to their attention. This youtube clip is a favourite of mine]

References [Online sources are already referenced in the text but titles will be included under the heading - Online Sources - in case links don't work]

1. Allegro, J. M. (1970). The Sacred Mushroom and The Cross: A Study of the nature and origins of Christianity within the fertility cults of the ancient Near East. Hodder and Stoughton: London 

2.  Birkinshaw, C. R. (1999). Use of Millipedes by Black Lemurs to Anoint their Bodies. Folia Primatol 70: 170-171 

 3.  Blundell, G. (1998). On Neuropsychology in Southern African Rock Art Research. Anthropology of Consciousness 9 (1): 3-12   

4.  Devereux, P. (1997). The Long Trip: A prehistory of Psychedelia. Penguin Books Ltd: Middlesex 

5.  Emboden, Jr, W. A. (1972). Ritual Use of Cannabis sativa L.: A Historical-Ethnographic Survey. In, Furst, P. T., Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. Waveland press, Inc.: Illinois, pp. 214-236 

6.  Fuller, R. C. (2000). Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History. Westview Press: Colorado 

7.  Furst, P. T. (1972). Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. Waveland press, Inc.: Illinois 

8.  Hofmann, A. & Schultes, R. E. (1979). The Nectar of Delight. In, Hofmann, A. & Schultes, R. E. Plants of the Gods. Healing Arts Press: USA. [You can see the excerpt I used online from The Nectar of Delight] 

9.  Lee, M. A. & Shlain, B. (1985). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, The Sixties, And Beyond. Grove Press: New York 

10.  Lewis-Williams, D.J. & Clottes, J. (1998). The Mind in the Cave – the Cave in the Mind: Altered Consciousness in the Upper Palaeolithic. Anthropology of Consciousness 9 (1): 13-21

11.  McKenna, T. (1992). Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge: A Radical History of Plants, Drugs and Human Evolution. Rider: London 

12.  Teeter, D. E. (2005). Amanita Muscaria: Herb of Immortality. Ambrosia Society: Texas.  

13.  Wasson, R. G. (1972). The Divine Mushroom of Immortality. In, Furst, P. T., Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. Waveland press, Inc.: Illinois, pp. 185-200.  

14.  Wasson, R. G. (1972). What was the Soma of the Aryans? In, Furst, P. T., Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. Waveland press, Inc.: Illinois, pp. 201-213 

15.  Whitley, D. S. (1998). Cognitive Neuroscience, Shamanism and the Rock Art of Native California. Anthropology of Consciousness 9 (1): 22-37

Online Sources

1.  Cat World. (2011). Catnip – Everything You Need To Know About Catnip!  

2.  Lost Civilisations. (Unknown). Mayan Religion – Popol Vuh. Maya.

3. The Coca-Cola Company. (2011). Coke Lore: Coca-Cola and Santa Claus.